CHAPTER
2
ADVAITA - ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
Before discussing the contribution of Andhras to Advaita Vedanta, the status of Advaita among the Darsanas merit brief discussion.
The philosophical discussions and theories established by famous
acharyas are named Darsanas. Etymologically, Darsana connotes that through which Atman can be seen [realized]. It suits every Darsana
since the exponents of every Darsana were convinced that that was the actual
Atman.
These Darsanas are of two kinds: orthodox and heterodox. Those
systems which
do not accept the testimony of the Veda are known as heterodox
Darsanas while
those which do are orthodox Darsanas. Charvaka, Jaina and the four
schools
of Buddhistic thought, namely, Madhyamika, Yogachara, Sautrantika,
Vaibhashika
are heterodox systems, while the orthodox systems are Sankhya, Yoga,
Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Uttara-Mimamsa.
Now let us discuss some of the salient features of these systems.
CHARVAKA DARSANA :
Brihaspathi is regarded as the founder of Charvaka Darsana. His
chief disciple, Charvaka, propagated this thought. Although the
original works of Charvaka Darsana are extinct, his views have
percolated to us, rather ironically, through his opponents who
bitterly criticized him.
The main features of this Darsana are:
a) Earth, water, fire and air are the basic elements. Ether is not
accepted as an element.
b) Senses and objects are the result of the different combinations
of these elements.
c) Perception is the only source of knowledge.
d) The soul is nothing but the consciousness of the body.
e) There is no God.
f) Artha and Kama are the two Purusharthas.
g) Death alone is liberation.
JAINA DARSANA :
The Jaina Darsana has a pre-historic origin. The twenty-four
Tirthankaras, right from Vrishabhadeva to Vardhamanamahaveera, who
were the originators of this faith, are said to be the exponents of
this philosophy.
The salient features of this philosophy are:
a) Consciousness is the essence of the soul.
b) The four vows, Ahimsa, Truthfulness, Non-stealing, Non-attachment
and Continence are the practical tenets of Jainism.
c) The three-fold path; right belief, right knowledge and right
understanding are the means to salvation.
BAUDDHA DARSANA :
Gautamabuddha, the Light of Asia, is the founder of Bauddhadarsana.
The four noble truths -- suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of
suffering and the means leading to this cessation of suffering --
constitute the philosophy of Bauddhadarsana. The noble eight-fold
path goes like this : right faith, right resolve, right speech, right
action right living, right effort, right thought and right
concentration are the means to liberation. Unfortunately, Buddha's
followers interpreted his teachings each in his own different way. Some of his followers were nihilists (Sunyavadins), some subjective
idealists (Yogacharas), some, representatives of critical reality
(Sautrantikas), and still others were direct realists (Vaibhashikas).
Their philosophies may be summarized as follows.
1) Sunyavadins stressed the unreality of all things, objects,
knowledge and knower.
2) Yogacharas admit that objects perceived are all ideas in the
mind. The mind alone is real. There is no external reality.
3) Sautrantikas maintained that both external and conceived objects
are real. It would be meaningless to say that consciousness
appears as the external object. Objects are felt directly as
existing outside of the self.
4) Vaibhashikas maintained that both mind and external objects are
real but, unlike Sautrantikas, they hold that external objects
are directly known through perception and not inferred. The
first two of the above four schools come under Mahayana
category while the last two under Hinayana.
SANKHYA DARSANA :
Among the oldest systems of Indian philosophy, Sankhya is
predominant. Kapila was its exponent. Since Sankhya means perfect
knowledge and since the philosophy inheres perfect knowledge, the
title Sankhya is highly appropriate.
YOGA DARSANA :
Patanjali was the founder of Yogadarsana. The yoga sutras composed
by him constitute the earliest and grandiose work on this system.
Yoga advocates an eight- fold path of discipline : Yama, Niyama,
Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dhyana, Dharana and Samadhi. One has to
practise these eight disciplines for obtaining liberation.
NYAYA DARSANA :
This school of philosophy was founded by Gautama and is primarily
concerned with correct thinking and acquiring true knowledge. Pramana
is the means of knowing things correctly. Nyayadarsana proposes four
Pramanas : Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upama, and Sabda. This system is an
elaboration of sixteen principles also known as Padarthas.
They are :
1) Means of right knowledge (Pramana) 2) Object of right knowledge. (Prameya)
3) Doubt (Samsaya) 4) Purpose (Prayojana) 5) Illustrative instances (Dristanta)
6) Accepted conclusion(Siddhantha) 7) Premises (Avayava) 8) Argumentation (Tarka)
9) Ascertainment (Nirnaya) 10) Debate(Vada) 11) Dispensation (Jalpa) 12) Fallacy (Hetvabhasa)
13) Quibble (Chala) 14) Refutation (Jati) 15) Destructive criticism (Vitanda) 16) Points of opponent's defeat ( Nigrahasthana)
This system is concerned with an explanation of the above sixteen
issues. It is said that the highest good, Nissreyasa, is attained
through a thorough knowledge of them and their practice.
VAISESHIKA DARSANA :
Vaiseshika philosophy was founded by Kanada and it is derived from
the word 'Visesha' which means particularity. The system involves the
seven Padarthas : Dravya (substance), Guna (quality), Karma (action),
Samanya (generality), Visesha (particularity), Samavaya (inherence)
and Abhava (non - being).
PURVA-MIMAMSA DARSANA :
The word Mimamsa means detailed discussion or critical
investigation. This system interprets the Vedic sentences and hence
the title. The earlier part of the Veda advocates Karma while the
latter part deals with Jnana. Thus Mimamsa is divided into
Purva-Mimamsa and Uttara-Mimamsa. Jaimini was the exponent of
Purva-Mimamsa. This system has the function of upholding Vedic
rituals.
UTTARA - MIMAMSA DARSANA :
This system, also known as Vedantadarsana, is said to be the best
of all Darsanas because it explains admirably the nature of soul and
serves as the beacon light of human life. Moreover, it satisfies the
human aspiration of getting rid of worldly entanglements and
attaining salvation. Sankaracharya, in his Bhashya on
Brahma-Sutras, expounds the superiority of Vedantadarsana over
the other philosophies in the following way.
Exponents of other systems tried to advance their own theories
basing upon arguments which, for the most part, are illogical and
inconsistent. For example,materialists assert that the body is the
soul and its existence is merely transitory;another school holds the
view that mind itself is the self. Disagreeing with this view,some
argue that soul's existence is transitory, while the nihilists pooh
pooh the ideaand declare the illusoriness of soul because it is a
void. Still others believe that there is a soul [separate from the
body] which transmigrates and is the agent of work (Karta) and the
experiencer of the results (Bhoktha). Yet some others say that the
soul is a mere experiencer (Bhokta) and not an agent (Karta). In this
veritable Babel, some believed in God who is different from the soul and is
all-knowing (Sarvajna), and all-powerful (Sarvasakthiman) while in
another view, the Atman itself is the experiencing individual.
Thus we see that there are diverse philosophic concepts which are
mutually contradictory although they all draw on logic and texts. If
one accepts any of these views without critical examination, one is
liable not only to be denied emancipation but also face grief. Hence
to realize the self, one should study the Vedantadarsana which
reveals the uniqueness of Atman. Badarayana was the exponent of
Vedantadarsana. His aphorisms numbering 555, known as Badarayana
Sutras, were the first treatise emanating form this system.
Badarayana was not the actual founder of this system because the
ideas already existed in the Upanishads. His role consisted only in
expatiating the philosophy of the Upanishads in his Sutras. Though
all the Upanishads aver the soul to be the noblest thought, to the
superficial observer, the aphorisms seemed divergent. This seeming
paradox had to be addressed by someone at some time. This Himalayan
task was taken up by Badarayana. He succeeded in establishing the
sameness or the similarity of the teaching of the Upanishads and
setting at rest the opponents' onslaughts once for all. In the
process of composing the Vedanta Sutras Badarayana was fair enough to
acknowledge the views borrowed from both his predecessors and his
contemporaries while at the same time he had to condemn others'
views. They were "Asmaradhya", "Audulomi",
"Kasakritsna", "Karshajani","Jaimini",
"Badari", "Atreya", and so on. The Vedantic
concepts advocated by them are known as Arshavedanta.
There were many other advocates of Vedantadarsana who came after
Badarayana and before Sankaracharya.(9) Gaudapada, the paramaguru
(teacher's teacher) of Sankaracharya developed the school of Vedanta
in a systematic way and he deserves to be honoured as the first
systematic expounder of Advaita Vedanta. His treatise was in the form
of Karikas, named after him, his name being 'Gaudapada' and is the
first available systematic treatise on the Advita Vedanta. The
purpose of the Karikas is to explain the philosophy of the Upanishads in general and
the Mandukyopanishad in particular.
The fundamental doctrine of Gaudapada entails No-origination
(Ajatavada). Negatively treated, it means that the world only
appears to be, but, in fact, it is non- existent. The concept of
Creation is just a myth.
न
कश्चिज्जायते जीव:
सम्भवोS
स्य न
विद्यते
एतत्तदुत्तमं
सत्यं यत्र किंचिन्न जायते
( गौडपादकारिका
३/४८)
Gaudapada was succeeded by his disciple, Govindabhagavatpada. A
very interesting fact in this lineage is that this
Govindabhagavatpada had the rare privilege of teaching the great
Sankaracharya. This privilege can further be extended to Gaudapada
because Sankara happened to be his sishya's sishya - a sort of grand
disciple.
Sankaracharya, also known as
Sankarabhagavatpada [A.D.788-820], was the first to consolidate the
doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, a sub-school or a subsidiary of
Vedantadarsana. He was born in Kaledy, a village in Kerala, to a
Nambudri Brahmana couple, Sivaguru and Aryamba and lived for just
thirty-two years. His father died while he was quite young Sankara
received his initiation at the age of five and was attracted to the
ascetic life. He somehow managed to get permission to renounce the
world and left Kerala and traveled towards the North in search of a
guru. He met Govindabhagavatpada on the bank of the river Narmada and
prostrated before him to be accepted as his disciple. This meeting
may well be described as love at first sight. When enquired about his
identity, Sankara gave such a mystic reply that it presented the
quintessence of Advita Vedanta.
न
भूमिर्न तॊयं न तेजो न वायु:
न
खं नेन्द्रियं वा न तेषां
समूह:
अनैकान्तिकत्वात्सुषुप्त्यैकसिद्ध:
तदॆकॊSवशिष्ट:
शिव:
केवलोSहम्
"I am neither Earth nor Water nor Fire nor Air nor Sky nor the
senses which by their very nature are prone to change, whereas I am
not prone to change".
This reply moved Govindabhagavatpada so much that he at once
accepted him as his disciple. In time he ordained Sankaracharya to
write commentaries on the Prasthanatraya, viz.,. the Upanishads, the
Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita in accomplishing his guru's
desire and propagate Advita Vedanta. Sankara faithfully undertook
this task and succeeded remarkbly. The commentary written by
Sankaracharya is known as Sarirakamimamsabhashya. Sarira,
being impure, has therefore come to be known as sariraka, while the
jiva which dwells in the sarira is saariraka. A discussion whether
this saariraka is the same as Brahman or not is known as
Saarirakamimamsabhashya. Apart from the Bhashyas written on the
Prasthanatraya, Sankara was said to have written the following works:
1. Advaita pancharatnam. 19. Praudhanubhutiprakaranam.
2. Advaitanubhuti. 20. Brahmanuchintanam.
3. Adhyatmavidyopadesa. 21. Manishapanchakam.
3. Adhyatmavidyopadesa. 21. Manishapanchakam.
4. Anatmasrivigarhana. 22. Mayapanchikam.
5. Aparokshanubhuti. 23. Mohamudgara.
6. Atmabodha. 24. Laghuvakyavrittiprakarana.
7. Atmanatmaviveka. 25. Vakyavritti.
8. Upadesasahasri. 26. Vivekachudamani.
9. Ekasloka. 27. Vedantasara.
10. Kasipanchakam. 28. Satasloki.
11. Kaupinapanchakam. 29. Shatpadi.
12. Jnanankusamsavivaranam. 30. Sadacharaprakaranam.
13. Dasasloki. 31. Sanatsujateeyam.
14. Nirvanashatkam. 32. Sarvavedantasiddhantasangraha
15. Pancharatnamalika. 33. Swarupanusandhanastakam.
15. Pancharatnamalika. 33. Swarupanusandhanastakam.
16. Panchikaranam. 34. Swatmanirupanam.
17. Prabodhasudhakara. 35. Hastamalakiyabhashyam.
18. Prasnottararatnamala.
Besides the above, around fifty works of Stotra type are ascribed
to Sankara wherein Bhakthi is described as the pivotal subject
interspersed with Advaita.
THE SALIENT FEATURES OF ADVITA :
According to Advita, Brahman alone is the Reality; the world is
unreal and is superimposed in Brahman just as the snake is
superimposed in a rope. Brahman is one without a second and there is
nothing apart from Brahman, similar to Brahman or different from
Brahman and Brahman is essentially undivided.
This attribute-less Brahman is inaccessible to sensory perception.
The attributes Sat, Chit, Ananda, as well as the concepts
Omnipresent, Omnipotent and Omniscient, are agencies which enable one
to understand the nature of Brahman.
Jiva, despite being Brahman himself, has the illusion of being
different from It(Brahman), due to nescience. This illusion arises
because Jiva has a body, senses and mind. Though Jiva is one, it
appears to be many in respect of Upadhi.
The happiness in one and the unhappiness in another, as experienced
universally, may be ascribed to the concept of Antahkarana.
Consciousness and Atman are identical and it is all-prevasive. When
it is reflected in Maya (Universal nescience), it is known as
Iswara, while the same, when reflected in Avidya ( Individual
nescience), is known as Jiva.
Advaita, to which
everything except Brahman is mere illusion, however, accepts three
realities, Pratibhasika (
transient reality) - a rope being mistaken as a snake;
Vyavaharika (world experience) - a snake appearing as a snake; and
Paramarthika (
the actual and absolute reality) - Brahman.
Just as dream apparations disappear as soon as consciousness is
restored, situations experienced in the usual state of consciousness
vanish when the state of Brahmajnana is obtained. As a follow-up, we
may perhaps touch briefly on nescience (Maya). Maya comprises three
gunas - Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. This Maya is believed to be in
existence perhaps prior even to time and space. The world and its
inhabitants consist of the basic elements; earth, water, sky , fire
and air. The Jiva results when consciousness enters them. When this
consciousness, which we may call mundane consciousness, evolves and
graduates into the real and ultimate Jnana, the Jiva becomes one with
Brahman. This supreme state and stage can be attained through an
appropriate guru who teaches eternal truths such as Tattvamasi and
Dasamastvamasi. When the ultimate realisation dawns on the Jiva, the
three karmas, which hang on to Jiva, vanish automatically.
Unfortuantely, even after the realisation, Jiva has still to undergo
Prarabdha as long as it runs its coursce. This stage in the
evolutionary process is known as jivanmukthi - liberation while still
living the normal life. Jivanmukthi transforms into Videhamukthi
when the body of the jivanmuktha perishes. The central point in the
whole discussion is that Jnana is the sine qua non of complete
liberation.
We now turn to have a look at Sankara's disciples, the famous among
them being Padmapada, Hastamalaka, Totakacharya and Sureswara. These
disciples eventually headed the four Mutts established by Sanakara in
the four corners of the country. Sankaracharya travelled the entire
length and breadth of India on foot propagating Advita Vedanta and
drawing large number of admirers. It is a pity that he passed away
at the prime age of thirty-two. Had he lived a little longer, no one
knows what earth-shaking achievements he would have made. Even during
his short span of
life the propagation of his philosophy had a tremendous impact on
India and abroad.
After Sankara's departure, his philosophy got divided into three
branches; Bhamati, Vivarana and Vartika. The first two have survived
and even enjoy critical examination, while the latter one, Vartika,
has suffered extinction.
The conceptual differences between Bhamati and Vivarana schools of thought will be discussed later. Most of the Acharyas who existed in
the Post-Sankara period composed commentaries and treatises
independently, following either of the two schools, not contradicting
each other. However, there are a few who followed one school
contradicting the other. Apart from the works based on these two Prasthanas, many
independent works, both major and minor, as well as commentaries were
written on Advita Vedanta. Besides the above, some other notable
works refuting the philosophy of Visistadvaita and Dwaita saw the
light of the day.
Among the authors of Advaita Vedanta, the part played by the
scholars of Andhradesa deserves special study.
***
